The Definition Of Stress Psychology Essay

The Definition Of Stress Psychology Essay Stress  is a term that is commonly used today but has become increasingly difficult to define. It shares, to some extent, common meanings in both the biological and psychological sciences. Stress is the bodys reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response. Stress can be defined in terms of all people responding in the same biological way to the same stimulus, or as dependent upon the persons response to the stressor. Any perception of a stress stimulus triggers the persons physiological and psychological responses to situations or events that disturb the equilibrium. Stress is any event that a human being perceives as harmful or threatening. The body reacts to stress with fight or flight response. Stress hormones like adrenalin, dopamine, cortisol, noradrenalin, and endorphins are released in the blood when one experiences stress. The term  stress  had none of its contemporary connotations before the 1920s. In the 1920s and 1930s, the term was occasionally being used in biological and psychological circles to refer to a mental strain, unwelcome happening, or, more medically, a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness. Walter Cannon  used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called homeostasis. Homeostasis is a concept central to the idea of stress. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis.  Factors causing an organisms condition to waver away from homeostasis can be interpreted as stress. A life-threatening situation such as a physical insult or prolonged starvation can greatly disrupt homeostasis. Psychologists have defined stress in a variety of ways. Contemporary definitions of stress regard the external environmental stress as a stressor, the response to the stressor of distress, and the concept of stress as something that involves biochemical, physiological, behavioural and psychological changes. While there is little consensus among psychologists about the exact definition of stress, it is agreed that stress results when demands placed on an organism cause unusual physical, psychological, or emotional responses. In humans, stress originates from a multitude of sources and causes a wide variety of responses, both positive and beneficial (Eustress) and negative and harmful (Distress). The most commonly used definition of stress was developed by Lazarus and Launier (1978), who regarded stress as a transaction between people and the environment and described stress in terms of person-environment fit. Stress typically describes a negative concept that can have an impact on ones mental  and physical well-being, but it is unclear what exactly defines stress and whether or not stress is a cause, an effect, or the process connecting the two. With organisms as complex as humans, stress can take on entirely concrete or abstract meanings with highly subjective qualities, satisfying definitions of both cause and effect in ways that can be both tangible and intangible. Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. The intensity and duration of stress changes depending on the circumstances and emotional condition of the person suffering from it (Arnold. E and Boggs. K. 2007). Humans may all be faced with the same stressor (stimulus) but the stress response that they show will depend on their individual differences or gender or culture. Stress is an extremely adaptive phenomenon in a person which contributes to his/her survival, activities, and performance.1 Physical and psychological stress can induce a number of immunological alterations in the cell mediated.2 Stressors may influence the immune system through their impact on neuroendocrine, autonomic and central nervous system.3 Psychological stress may influence the functions of the immune system both indirectly through hormonal changes, and directly through nervous regulation during brief but acute stressful periods.4 Exposure to psychological stressors can modulate the primary antibody response.5,6 (4) Some common categories and examples of stressors include: Life experiences such as poverty, unemployment, clinical depression. Obsessive compulsive disorder, heavy drinking,  or insufficient sleep  can also cause stress. Students and workers may face performance pressure stress from exams  and project deadlines. The medical student: Medical students are frequently individuals with a long-standing need for caring, a capacity to tolerate, being in a providing, dispensing, and nurturing relationship with other people. It is not uncommon for medical students to have chosen medicine after a death of a family member or close friend, sometimes with the quite conscious desire to learn how to fight wasteful death. The goal of medical education is to graduate knowledgeable, skilful and professional physicians. The medical school curriculum has been developed to accomplish these ambitions. Medical students are a highly self-selected group who arrive in medical school with a set of developed abilities, motives, adaptive styles, and values that must be taken into account if we are to understand the impact of their medical studies on them. Teams of sociologists have studied the ways medical students organize themselves to excel and to manage the vast amounts of information that they should learn. They consider success in medical school as the first step to a future of helping others and they are not about to jeopardize that. Medical students as a group are attracted to medicine partly because of their special sensitivity to and concern on three psychological issues: death, suffering, and care. Secondly, medical students are distinguished by a preference for certain adaptive techniques, styles, and defences-specifically by a propensity to counter, master, and overcome sources of anxiety, a tendency to react to stress and anxiety. (3) Stress and medical studies: There is extensive literature demonstrating that medical students begin medical school with mental health profiles similar to their non-medical peers. Since the healing profession is distinctively motivated to confront the issues of suffering, death and care, issues that most of their fellows anxiously avoid, through the course of medical school, they experience substantial deterioration in their mental quality of life, due to stress and anxiety. Medical students have to deal with stressors specific to medical school in addition to normal stressors of everyday life which explains this high prevalence of anxiety. (1) Medicine is a kind of training which is emotionally demanding and therefore medical education can be regarded as stressful. High levels of stress have been found in medical students in various studies. Amongst medical students, stress has been reported to be caused by academic pressure, perfectionist standards, increased psychological pressure, mental tension and too much work load. The demanding nature of medical practice requires involvement with the most personal or emotionally draining aspects of life (human suffering, death, sexuality and fear) and these are considered to be stressors. Stress during medical school can lead to problems later in professional life compromising patient care. (1) Studies suggest that medical students experience a high incidence of stress with potential adverse consequences on academic performance, competency, professionalism and health. Medical students experience substantial stress from the beginning of the training process. Students use various coping mechanisms to process stress that vary by year in training and source of stress. The specific coping strategies that students use may determine the effect of stress on psychological and physical health and may determine whether stress has a positive or negative influence. Strategies that centre on disengagement such as problem avoidance, wishful thinking, social withdrawal and self-criticism have negative consequences and correlate with depression, anxiety and poor mental health. In contrast, strategies that involve engagement such as problem solving, positive re-interpretation, reliance on social support and expression of emotion enable medical students to respond in a manner that leads to adaptation, which can reduce stress. Medical education has deleterious consequences. Trainees (students, interns, and residents) suffer high levels of stress, which lead to alcohol and drug abuse,  interpersonal relationship difficulties, depression and anxiety,  and even suicide.  Medical students have mean anxiety scores one standard deviation above those of non-patients. (12) Studies which have tried to identify the sources of stress among medical students generally concern three main areas : academic stress: enormous syllabus to be covered in a limited time, sudden change in their style of studying, flooding of medical science with new concepts, lack of proper guidance, thought of failing in exams, inadequate time allocated to clinical posting, insufficient bed side teaching, social stress : relationship with peer groups, hostel friends, senior teachers, displacement from home, expectations of parents, peer pressure, change in the medium of education, physical stress : inadequate hostel facilities, hostel food etc. (5) Anxiety is also associated with feeling of loneliness, peer competition, long hours and loss of social time. The majority of stressful incidents in traditional curricula are related to medical training rather than to personal problems. (7) Stress may not only impair the quality of life of medical students but can also influence patient care and the complex psychodynamics of the doctor- patient relationship. (5) Stress is receiving increased attention because of the realization that tired, tense, anxious doctors may not provide as high quality care as do those who do not suffer from these debilitating conditions. A medical career can be particularly stressful due to the combination of involvement with life and death and the high expectations of medicine and of doctors held by both the public and doctors themselves. Partly as a result of these pressures and the need to acquire a substantial body of knowledge and skills, medical students experience considerable anxiety at various stages in the curriculum (Arndt et al., 1986; Firth, 1986; Firth-Cozens, 1987; Kidson Hornblow, 1982; Moss McManus, 1992; Tooth et al., 1989). Such anxieties may result in, for example, reduced examination performance (Tooth et al., 1989), increased alcohol consumption (Firth, 1986) and attempted suicide (Warren Wakeford, 1990). (6) Some students may perceive factors such as nutrition, exercise routines, sleep patterns, social activities, having a child to care for, job responsibilities, finances as stressors that they need to overcome in order to achieve a higher academic standing. By themselves, these constraints may have no effect at all on a student, but when combined, a student could perceive them as stressful and these stress factors could have a dramatic effect on a students academic performance. Exam stress during medical studies: Medical students are repeatedly subjected to rigorous examinations in order to check their potential to be a doctor as they have to deal with human life every single day. They have chosen a career which demands not only responsibilities but also ethical and legal liability for others lives. The onus of this responsibility and sheer volume of syllabus places a medical student under tremendous stress prior to professional exams. This stress may manifest with varying magnitude of anxiety (Kidson and Hornblow, 1982) and decrease in psychological health (Aktekin et al, 2001). (13) To a student, the prospect of sitting for an examination could be identified as a stressor and the resulting emotional and physiological state could be described as an exam stress. (4) Many students experience anxiety before a test or exam; a little bit of nervousness can actually enhance performance. However, if stress levels rise to the point where they inhibit performance on the test, then this is considered exam stress. 92% of students said that they got worried during exam time; one fifth of students surveyed revealed that they had suffered anxiety attacks as a result of pre-exam stress. Furthermore, 61% of those questioned cited lack of sleep/insomnia as a result of stress, 51% said that they suffer from headaches or migraines and 47% admitted turning to the one of the worlds best comforts, food. (10) Here below are some of the symptoms of exam stress, which can vary widely in intensity. Some test-takers experience only mild anxiety, and still perform well, but others are left nearly unable to function, failing the test or even experiencing a panic attack. Physical symptoms of exam stress include tremors, sweating, dry mouth, nausea, rapid heartbeat and even fainting. Milder cases include symptoms of butterflies in the stomach, but severe cases can lead to physical illness which must be treated. Behavioural and cognitive symptoms include defiant avoidance of exam situations, or just a little fidgeting. In some cases, exam stress can become so severe that the student is forced to drop out of school entirely just to avoid testing. Many students attempt self-medication with alcohol or drugs; still others report blanking out completely, or experiencing difficulty concentrating, inability to control thoughts and a negative outlook, which are all common behavioural / cognitive symptoms of exam stress. Emotional symptoms of exam stress include low self-esteem, anger, depression and feelings of despair. The students taking the test often feel unable to do anything about their situation, so they may berate or belittle themselves about their performance and their feelings. Exam stress is reported to have a significant impact on the well-being of the student and is associated with changes in the mental and physical health such as increasing anxiety, increasing negative mood and changes in the functions of the immune system. (4) In other words, the exam is one of the stressful events associated with lowered immune system function.14 Academic examinations have often been used in stress research because they are predictable, standardized, and discrete examples of real-life stressors. It was demonstrated that this stress caused a significant neurohormonal change. A small but significant increase in their emotional distress is indicated by an increase in anxiety during the final examination. Glucocorticoids can downregulate the immune activity, but acute stresses were reported to increase the cortisol level.19 Results show that the exam stress can result in significant increase in the cortisol level. (4) According to a study conducted by Shamsdin, et.al. (2010) on thirty five university medical students, two blood samples were provided from each participant one month (first stage) and one hour (second stage) before the exam. The results show that stress has determining effects on the immune response. The exam stress can result a significant increase in the cortisol level. So, these changes may indicate the alterations of immunological status and presence of stress in an immunosuppressed individual, affecting his / her health. Under stressful conditions, the hypothalamus releases corticotrophins into the blood circulation and when it reaches the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, adrenocorticotrophic hormones are released into the blood circulation. When this reaches the adrenal gland, lucocorticoids are released which are chemicals that modulate or regulate the immune response. Since lymphocytes have receptors for glucocorticoids as well as other steroid hormones associated with r esponses to stress, the brain and immune system are sufficiently well connected to one to influence the other. Exam stress  involves a combination of physiological over-arousal, worry and dread about test performance, and often interferes with normal learning and lowers test performance. It is a physiological condition in which people experience extreme stress, anxiety, and discomfort during and/or before taking a test. Exam stress is prevalent amongst the student populations of the world, and has been studied formally since the early 1950s. During states of excitement or stress the body releases the hormone adrenaline. This hormone is responsible for preparing the body for danger, or the fight or flight response. Adrenaline is known to cause the physical symptoms one might experience that accompany exam stress such as increased heart rate, sweating, and rapid breathing.  [3]   Symptoms of exam stress can range from moderate to severe. Students who exhibit moderate symptoms are still able to perform relatively well on exams.  [5]  Other students with severe stress will often experience panic attacks. Student expectations are one major mental factor. For example, if a student believes that he or she will perform poorly on an exam, he/she is far more likely to become anxious before and during a test. (9) Exam stress is the emotional reaction that some students face before exams. The fear is not irrational, but excessive fear interferes with performance. Many researchers suggest that a little worry is good for students because it keeps them task oriented; however excessive worry on the other hand can be very debilitating and interferes with the results if not managed appropriately. (2) Exam stress is a set of responses that includes excessive worry, depression, nervousness and irrelevant thinking to a class of stimuli from an individuals experience of assessment / test and outcome. It is experienced by many students while undertaking any exam. There are four main areas of reported stresses which can contribute to exam stress including life style issues, lack of required information, studying style and psychological factors. (2) Life styles related issues include inadequate rest, insufficient physical activity, poor nutrition and lack of time management are found to be the contributing factors leading to exam stress as reported by many authors. Psychological factors which contribute significantly to exam stress are negative and irrational thinking about exams, outcomes of exams and feelings of no control over exam situation (e.g. going blank during exam) are reported by many authors. Students perception of extensive course load is also reported to cause exam stress in medical students. Examination system itself is a major stress factor for medical students. (2) In other words, the phrase exam is the same stimulus, but some medical students will be feeling very worked up about the exam, others will be more laid back. The internal and behavioural response will be different for each of them. Psychologists try to find out the factors affecting this interaction and stress management depends on the perceived interaction and response. Gender is likely to be an important factor in students anxiety. Women are reported to be more anxious than men, both overall and for most individual situations. (6) Anxiety levels increase in medical students just before exams, with female students found to be more anxious than males, shows a study undertaken by the Armed forces Medical College (AFMC), Pune, India (Pahwa, et. al., 2008). (14) According to this study labelled A study of exam related anxiety amongst medical students pre-exam anxiety levels are seen to be higher in female than male population indicating greater increase in anxiety levels amongst females. This is in agreement with other studies that substantiate presence of sex differences in exam related anxiety, with female students having higher test anxiety than male students (Chapell et al 2005, Eller et al 2006). (13) Females are more likely to report concern and stress due to self expectation, a feeling of lack of competence and a tendency to over report symptoms. (1) Comparison of rankings between 1992 and 1995 Birmingham students shows that rankings were consistent over time for both genders, particularly for the higher ranked questions. More detailed analysis of the 1995 data shows that individual female students were more likely to have higher total scores than male students. (6) All stress factors were more common among female students with statistically significant differences in factors which included: studying all night before exams, feeling no control over exam situations, improper nutrition and lack of exercise. Personality and stress: Mental health professionals believe personality plays a significant role in how individuals perceive stress (Martin, 2011). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define stress as a product of the relationship between the person and the environment. Stress occurs when a person appraises a stressful event as exceeding his / her coping abilities or threatening his / her well being. Personality can influence both health related and everyday behaviours and is also related to an individuals appraisal of a stressful experience (Booth-Kewley, 1994). Stress is not a simple, stimulus-response reaction; rather it is the interaction between an individual and the environment, involving subjective perception and assessment of stressors, thus constituting a highly personalised process. Specific inherited characteristics, early experience in life, and in particular, learned cognitive predispositions make individuals more or less susceptible to the effects of stressors. Resilience and vulnerability to stressors as well as intensity of stress response mainly depend on age, gender, intelligence, and many other characteristics of personality (19). (Psychiatrike. 2011. Stress and personality. Lecic-Tosevski D, Vukovic O, Stepanovic J. psychiatric Department, Belgrade University, School of Medicine, Belgrade, Serbia.) Research has indicated that certain personality traits can make individuals more vulnerable to stress. There is a number of personality traits that could be described which measure human personality. A broad and comprehensive way of identifying the traits and structure of human personality is the Five Factor model (Digman, 1990). J.M. (1990). (Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model.Annual Review of Psychology  41: 417-440). Five Factor Model: This model has originated in a decades-long factor-analytic research tradition (13). Most researchers goal was to create a brief inventory that would allow efficient and flexible assessment of the five dimensions when there is no need for more differentiated measurement of individual facets. (6) Big Five has proven useful as a framework for organizing any findings on adult personality in areas such as behavioural genetics and industrial psychology. (6) The five factor model of personality is better understood as a lexical and factor analytic derived personality approach (Haslam, 2007). McCrae and Costa (1991) claim that this model provides a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits. However this model has not always been regarded as noteworthy (McAdams, 1992). McCrae and Costa have conducted a lot of research on the model, including cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs (Cavanaugh Blanchard-Fields, 2006) and they argue that the model includes a large number of traits found in language and scientific theory. Thus, this model allows for a systematic approach to personality (12). The five factors model is more than a simple classification of basic personality traits. By the late 1980s, Costa and McCrae were convinced that they and other researchers had found a stable structure of personality. (11) In McCrae and Costas (1996, 1999, 2003) personality theory , behaviour is predicted by understanding the three central or core components and the three peripheral ones. The three central components include (1) basic tendencies, (2) characteristic adaptations, and (3) self-concept. (11) The five factors are labelled by McCrae and Costa (1992) as extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. These dimensions make up the personality traits of the five-factor model, which is often referred to as the Big Five (Goldberg, 1981). The first of the five factors is extraversion. Extraversion has a different importance in different measures. Sometimes it is based on assertiveness, sometimes on spontaneity and energy. Sometimes it is based on dominance, confidence, and agency (Depue Collins 1999), sometimes on a tendency toward happiness. Extraversion is often thought to be implying sociability (Ashton et al. 2002). Others see a sense of agency and a sense of sociability as two facets of extraversion (Depue Morrone- Strupinsky 2005). Finally, others argue sociability is a by-product of other features of extraversion (Lucas et al. 2000). A connection has also been made between extraversion and the approach temperament; thus, some now view extraversion as reflecting a relative sensitivity of a general approach system (DepueCollins 1999, Caspi Shiner 2006, Caspi et al. 2005, ElliottThrash 2002, Evans Rothbart 2007). People who score high on extraversion tend to be affectionate, jovial, talkative, joiners, and fun-loving. In contrast, low extraversion scorers are likely to be reserved, quiet, loners, passive, and unable to express strong emotion (11). The second factor, neuroticism, refers to the ease and frequency with which a person becomes upset and distressed. Moodiness, anxiety, and depression indicate higher neuroticism. Measures often include items or facets relevant to hostility and other negative feelings, but they are dominated by vulnerability to anxiety and general distress. Neuroticism has been associated with the avoidance temperament discussed above (Caspi Shiner 2006, Caspi et al. 2005, EvansRothbart 2007), suggesting that anxiety and sensitivity to threat is its emotional core. People who score high on neuroticism tend to be anxious, temperamental, self-pitying, self-conscious, emotional, and vulnerable to stress related disorders. Those who score low on neuroticism are usually calm, even-tempered, self-satisfied, and unemotional. (11) The next factor is agreeableness. Agreeable people are friendly and helpful ( John Srivastava 1999), empathic (Graziano et al. 2007), and capable of inhibiting their negative feelings (Graziano Eisenberg 1999). Agreeable people become angry over others transgressions than do less agreeable people (Meier Robinson 2004), and this probably short-circuits aggression (Meier et al. 2006). At the opposite pole is an oppositional or antagonistic quality. People who are low in agreeableness display their power to deal with social conflict (Graziano et al. 1996). Agreeableness as a dimension is often characterized as being broadly concerned with maintaining relationships (Jensen- Campbell Graziano 2001). People who score high on agreeableness tend to be trusting, generous, yielding, acceptant, and good-natured. Those who score low are generally suspicious, stingy, unfriendly, irritable, and critical of other people (11). The most commonly used label for the next factor is conscientiousness, although this label does not fully represent the qualities of planning, persistence, and purposeful trying to achieve goals that are part of it (Digman Inouye 1986). Other suggested names include constraint and responsibility, reflecting qualities of impulse control and reliability. Specific qualities included in this trait vary considerably across measures (Roberts et al. 2005). Individuals who score high on conscientiousness are hardworking, conscientious, punctual, and persevering. In contrast, people who score low on conscientiousness tend to be disorganized, negligent, lazy, and aimless and are likely to give up when a project becomes too difficult (11). Agreeableness and conscientiousness share an important property. Both suggest breadth of perspective. Many manifestations of conscientiousness imply taking future contingencies into account. Agreeableness implies a broad social perspective: taking the needs of others into account. It has been suggested that both of these traits have their origins in the effortful control temperament (Ahadi Rothbart 1994, Caspi Shiner 2006, Jensen-Campbell et al. 2002). The fifth factor, most often called openness to experience (Costa McCrae 1985), is the one about which there is most disagreement as far as content is concerned. Some measures (and theories) enrich this factor with greater overtones of intelligence, terming it intellect (Peabody Goldberg 1989). The fifth factor involves curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, and willingness to immerse oneself in atypical experiences (McCrae 1996). People who consistently seek out different and varied experiences would score high on openness to experience. They are creative, imaginative, curious, liberal and have a preference for variety. Those who score low on openness tend to support traditional values and to preserve a fixed style of living and they are typically conventional, down-to-earth, conservative, and not at all curious. (13) Big Five and Medical students: Most of the research on the Big Five is based on self and peer ratings, typically made by college students. (6) Conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness have been shown to be related significantly to academic performance (Poropat, 2009). (15) Neuroticism, in contrast, has a negative significant relationship with academic performance. The relation between educational operation and neuroticism, particularly with regard to anxiety in stressful situations such as university examinations has been clarified 14 (18). It is often claimed that, besides cognitive abilities, a mixture of personality characteristics is necessary for people to be successful in medical studies and eventually in the medical profession. However, there is debate as to which personality traits are typical of students in medical studies as compared to students in other academic fields 1-3. (5) A study conducted by Nauert (2009) which was labelled Personality profile of medical students studied more than 600 Belgian students over their seven years of medical studies to determine what impact their personality had on their performance. The researchers employed a commonly used test to measure the Big Five personality traits. Although the study was conducted in Belgium, the personality factors and the modern medical practices are similar around the world so personality should consistently relate to valued outcomes in medical education. Personality traits can reveal a lot about how students perform during the different demands and emphases of a students medical studies. For example, trait conscientiousness was a good predictor of learning success throughout the medical studies of the students. The researchers speculated that extraverted students are more likely to spend less time on studying than on their social relationships during the first years of medical school, which could hinder their academic performance and result in lower grades, whereas students who scored well in persistence and conscientiousness experienced success in their studies (Grohol, 2009). Big Five and Stress: Personality has been linked to the probability of experiencing stressful situations (Bolger Zuckerman, 1995) and to the evaluation of an event as stressful (Guthert, Cohen Armeli, 1999). Stress plays a role in personality/psychopathology associations (Klein, Wonderlich, Shea, 1993). Stressful reactions act as a medi

Standardized Testing Is Counterproductive Essay -- Problems With High

Excessive testing has been integrated in the public school system to measure student intelligence, observe teacher proficiency, and distribute federal funds since the passage of the No Child Left behind Act (NCLBA) of 2001. The (NCLBA) ‘‘called for 100% of the nation’s public school students to become proficient in mathematics and reading by 2014’’ through the usage of standardized testing (Hanson 3). Since the inception of this policy there have been numerous issues involved in these tests. ‘‘Instead of providing equal access for all children, the frenetic use of mandated testing in schools and in teacher education is having the opposite effect’’ (Richardson 34). Standardized testing is an ineffective and outdated tool that creates a counterproductive learning environment; testing enforced by the state should be altered to better accommodate the students needs. The primary function of standardized testing is to provide an accurate measure of student and teacher performance; they fall short of meeting this standard. Test scores don’t accurately reflect a child’s intelligence. One reason for this is that a single test cannot properly show the extent of a child’s knowledge. Language barriers are a determining factor as well, if English is not the primary language of a student they will have a harder time understanding questions and in turn procure lower scores. More problems arise when students enter high school; students don’t try as hard since standardized tests do not affect class grades. Moreover, scores are influenced by external factors. A child’s emotional or mental state during testing is detrimental to their results. Living conditions along with social status affect testing data as well. If a student is upset or living... ... ERIC. Print. Longo, Christopher. ‘‘Fostering Creativity or Teaching to the Test? Implications of State Testing on the Delivery of Science Instruction.’’ Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 2010. ERIC. Print. Phelps, Richard P. ‘‘Characteristics of an Effective Student Testing System.’’ Educational Horizons, 2006. ERIC. Print. Reddell, Samantha. ‘‘High Stakes Testing: Our Children at Risk.’’ Online Submission, 2010. ERIC. Print. Richardson, Brian; Wheeless, Lawrence R. ‘‘Teachers Tattling on Teachers: Policy Attitude and Tenure's Influence on Peer Reporting of Unethical Behavior.’’ International Journal of Educational Reform, 2009. ERIC. Print. Ryan, Katherine E., Allison M. Ryan, Keena Arbuthnot, Maurice Samuels. ‘‘Students' Motivation for Standardized Math Exams.’’ Educational Researcher, 2007. EIRC. Print.

Investigating racial awareness and whom it affects in primary schools? Essay

I have carried out an investigation on racism in primary school settings and who these matters may concern. I handed 10 questionnaires to my first placement I only received half back, so I handed another five to a different primary school I am at now these all got completed. In the questionnaire it had 10 questions to find out staffs views and if they feel their school environment provides multi-cultural. I will be showing my results in forms of bar and pie charts and finish of with a conclusion of the overall investigation. I conclude that the teacher, LSA and students who filled the questionnaires in didn’t understand the term multi-cultural and why we need to be aware of it. Introduction: I am carrying out an investigation on race and who racism is affecting within primary schools settings. The main issue of carrying the investigation out is if teachers are coping with racial equality and if qualified staffs are promoting positive images and if they know enough information about this issue for them to be making it aware for children at a young age. I have been looking at my last three placements home corners I think this a good way to see how diverse the school is. I found in my first placement that it was very multicultural it had different coloured dolls, dressing up outfits from around the world and had a variety of foods that are from other countries and religions. The second placement parkway did include celebrations while I was there such as the Chinese New Year but they did not have as much diverse equipment as they need. This investigation is important to me, as I am becoming an early year’s practitioner I would like to find out other people views and opines. Children aged 11-16 year olds are now being taught about Citizen Cyd this covers racism, friendships and even drugs, this is also being introduced to children as young as three years old in my nursery. I will be saying how primary schools can promote positive learning for the children and how teachers could improve they way of learning by having skills to teach diversity. Even if the children in the area of the school where the questionnaires were handed out are all white children there is still need for children to learn about other cultures and religions. This is so when they are older even in secondary school, they show oppression for other peoples cultures and beliefs.

FERRARI Surname Meaning and Family History

Ferrari is patronymic or plural form of the last name Ferraro, an occupational surname from the Italian word  ferraro, meaning blacksmith - originally derived from the Latin  ferrum  meaning iron. Ferrari is basically the Italian equivalent of the English surname SMITH. Ferrari is the third most common surname in Italy. Alternate Surname Spellings:  FERARI, FERARRI, FERRERO, FIERRO, FARRAR, FERRARA, FARRAH, PHARRO Surname Origin:  Italian Famous People With the FERRARI  Surname Enzo Ferrari  -  Italian race car designerErmanno W. Ferrari  - Italian music composerGaudenzio Ferrari -  16th-century Italian artistVirginio Ferrari - Italian sculptor Where Is the FERRARI Surname Most Common? According to surname distribution from  Forebears, Ferrari is the 1,667th most common surname in the world—found most prevalently in Brazil, but most common in Italy, especially the northern regions. The Ferrari surname is also fairly common in Monaco (ranked 30th in the country), Uruguay (61st) and Argentina (82nd). Surname maps from WorldNames PublicProfiler demonstrate the popularity of the Ferrari surname in northern Italy, especially the regions of Emilia-Romagna, Lombardia, Liguria and Trentino-Alto Adige. The Ferrari name is also fairly common in the region of Tessin, Switzerland. Genealogy Resources for the Surname FERRARI Meanings of Common Italian SurnamesUncover the meaning of your Italian last name with this free guide to Italian surname meanings and origins for the most common Italian surnames. Ferreira DNA Surname ProjectThis DNA project is connecting individuals with the Ferreira surname and variants such as  Ferrara, Ferrari, Ferraro, Ferrera, Ferreri, Ferrero and Forero, who are interested in using both Y-DNA and mtDNA testing to help discover common Ferreira ancestors. Ferrari  Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Ferrari  family crest or coat of arms for the Ferrari surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. Ferrari Family Genealogy ForumThis free message board is focused on descendants of Ferrari ancestors around the world. Search or browse the archives for your Ferrari ancestors, or join the group and post your own Ferrari family query. FamilySearch - FERRARI GenealogyExplore over 4.2 million results from digitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Ferrari surname on this free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. DistantCousin.com - FERRARI  Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Ferrari. GeneaNet - Ferrari  RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Ferrari  surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Ferrari  Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the Ferrari surname from the website of Genealogy Today.----------------------- References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998.Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997.ï » ¿Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997. https://www.thoughtco.com/surname-meanings-and-origins-s2-1422408

An Investigation Of The Risks Faced Example For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3276 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Research paper Tags: Investment Essay Risk Essay Did you like this example? Banks are type of Financial Institutions that facilitate the flow of funds and are the back bone of the economy. So banks act as financial intermediaries to interact the deficient units with surplus units and in this the banks bear certain risks. One of the risks is the credit risk or default risk. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "An Investigation Of The Risks Faced Example For Free" essay for you Create order A bank is exposed to this risk when it lends money from the money of the depositors and the borrower is unable to repay the debt. This risk is one of the major risks faced by banks and it has increased significantly over the years due to the global financial crisis of 2007. The financial crisis has exposed banks to huge amount to risks leading the banks to become bankrupt and insolvent. Banks have tried to reduce the impact by concentrating in particular sectors that is lending to a few sector mostly. In Pakistan, initially banks concentrated in agriculture sector and later they have shifted their focus to the manufacturing sector due to massive industrialization and potential in the sector. So now banks are lending around 30% of the total advances to the textile sector which is one of the largest components of the manufacturing sector. Though, this lending to a particular sector hasnt borne the fruit for commercial banks. One of the major reasons is that the textile sector is facing awful times in the form of decline in exports in the US market as well as the European market. Now these markets are dominated by China. Pakistan currently faces an on going problem of energy shortage which has forced the textile sector to resort to other ways of meeting the energy gap. These alternative ways are costly and have thus led to expensive exports which are no longer lucrative in the international market. Hence, textile sector is unable to repay their debts and the banks bear the cost in the form of increased non performing loans. 1.2: Relevance of the topic and research title Pakistans Banking sector is one of the sound sectors which comprises of major players in the financial market. These players are Financial Institutions particularly Banks like Muslim Commercial Bank, Habib Bank and Bank Alfalah and some foreign banks like Barclays and Citi Bank. As more and more products are being introduced by the banks, in an attempt to diversify, more choices are available to the consumer to invest his money hence banks are now shifting their focus from traditional or conventional modes of banking into modern and sophisticated modes. Now with the changes in the banks portfolio, banks are extending more credit and investing more. In this era of change, banks with their lucrative offers and products are paving an entirely new path for various modes of investment. These new ways are getting customers to invest and borrow more which has resulted in a higher default thus making banks more vulnerable. In order to mitigate the impact of this default rate surge banks are concentrating there loan portfolio in credit worthy sectors but this risk management practice has failed the banks because there has been massive defaults in the sector they concentrated in which was textile sector. Hence, as the title of the research topic is Analysis of Credit Risk in the Textile Sector probes into the causes and determinants of this higher default rate or surge in non performing loans due to the textile sector. The subsequent research will outline the impact of various Bank specific, institutional and macroeconomic factors in assessing credit risk of various banks. It will investigate the impact that one sector can have on the overall banks credit risk and the extent of that risk. 1.3: Background Information and Evolution Pakistan is one of those countries where there has been rapid growth over the years especially in the field of Banking. Banking is one of the most responsive businesses all over the world. Banks play very significant function in the economy of a country and Pakistan is no exception. Banks are guardian to the assets of the general masses. 1.3.1: Pakistans Banking Industry The Pakistans Banking Sector has experienced massive growth in terms of size and scale of business. The Banking sector, which was entirely dominated by Nationalized Commercial Banks (NCBs) until a few years ago, has been opened up to the private sector. The sector has witnessed an exceptional development in 2005-09. There are 45 scheduled banks  [1]  (including 7 foreign banks) operating in Pakistan which has increased the competition, particularly after the testing capital adequacy benchmarks set by the State Bank of Pakistan to nurture a steady banking system. Draw foreign ventures and captivating lucrative clients are the only alternative left to banks for sustained continuation. Furthermore, banks are inclined to build their organizations to give the impression of being unique from their market competitors by pursuing divergent and distinctive strategies and by introducing products and services through product differentiation. This is leading to massive competition which is touching new altitudes in the banking business and it will obtain more vigor. A number of aspects are escalating the frontiers of competition in both funding and asset use. Moreover, chances for foreign banks, particularly in consumer and retail banking, are superior than ever before and there is noteworthy transfer of spotlight from industrial lending to consumer products which has facilitated the banks to get advantage from massive spreads. Though, the manufacturing sector is still enjoying the highest share in credit facilities extended by the banking industry. Hence due to these new opportunities, the banking industrys assets have also increased over the years. Advances have increased by around 15%  [2]  from 2001-2009. Thats means there has been a decade wide growth of 15% in the advances extended by the banking sector. Whereas, deposits have also experienced a considerable growth of around 14% which signifies the fact that the banks are actively accepting deposit s and lending out in accordance the amount generated by deposits and hence earning a profit. Profits have increased till 2005 and peaked in 2006 but in 2007 due to the global financial crisis have experienced a downfall and the trickle down effects of this recession are being faced by the banking sector currently as well. On the other hand, market pressures compels the banks to make loans in unknown areas loosening the rope of risk management but the current key ratios point towards an outstanding uphill trend in the banking industry with gigantic banking spreads, particularly during the last half decade. Provision for loan losses is ascending over the years. Troubled loans or non performing advances are regarded as a cancer for banking industry. It can be said that quality loans is the ultimate objective for bankers today. Moving on, The Merger game is taking the front seat in the world. A craze for giant banks is developing to benefit effectively from the future market op enings and to tame ever increasing competition. But there are inherent constraints in this mania. The economies of scale vanish automatically after a certain level of expansion in the banking industry.  [3] 1.3.2: Credit Risk faced by Banking Sector While the possession and administration of the banks by private sector is one pillar of the reforms, the other pillar is well-built regulatory environment. Private Commercial Banks are prone to taking unnecessary risks in their lending as their own capital is much lesser in relation to the depositors money. They can realize the huge upside potential from high-risk assets while the defaults and damages in event of downside scenario are borne disproportionately by the depositors. The banking sector has now diversified its product base and carried out a lot of innovation. They have expanded their out reach to agriculture, SMEs, mortgage financing and consumer financing. Not only that this diversified lending portfolio mitigates risks but it also raises the purchasing power of a large segment of population that was completely shut out from credit markets. Pakistans auto industry has expanded its car production by a multiple of five times in the last four years as auto financing enab led a vast number of middle class income earners to purchase the cars on monthly installments. The affordability of these new products by the middle class became possible as the prudent fiscal and monetary policies pursued by the Government left a lot of liquidity in the banking system. The Government, by reducing its fiscal deficit and public sector enterprises by making cash profits, freed up loan-able funds for the use of the private sector. The Central Bank by pursuing an accommodating monetary policy did not mop up excess liquidity and helped the businesses and consumers to access funds at historically record low levels. Due to these new products and the provision of credit facilities to middle class has led to an increase in the non performing loans. This is so because consumers with lower credit worthiness tend to default more thats why the banking industry has faced an overall surge in the defaults. To make matters worse the natural disasters (floods and earthquakes) h ave exposed the banking industry to a higher default rates. This can be shown by a surge in the non performing loans of the banking sector. The ratio of NPL/Advances net has increased from 1.6 in 2006 to 3.8 in 2010.  [4]  Which shows that despite facilitating the credit to organizations and consumers, there has also been an increase in the non performing loans? The rising quantum of NPLs is not a high-quality indication for the general financial steadiness, creditability and prosperity of the banking structure. The mounting ratio of NPLs deficiently influences the lending rate. It is also one of the most important reasons for the sluggish revitalization of ill units in the country. It is eventually causing slow down in industrial productivity and economic activity. This circumstances forces the managers of the banking industry to give minimal return to the depositors and charge high mark-up on loans. Low return on deposits dampens savings, which are already very little.  [ 5] So, it is the duty of the central bank as a regulator to be exceptionally vigilant and take timely action to thwart the bank managers and owners from assuming excessive risks. The Central Bank in Pakistan has strengthened its capacity by acquiring new skills, upgrading the quality of the on hand human resources base, adopting technology and re-engineering business practices. The banking regulation and supervision are risk-based and are fully compliant with the international standards and codes prescribed by Basel Committee. The risk management practices are being customized to conform to Basel II rules. The financial soundness indicators show a healthy and sound banking system with high level of financial consistency. 1.3.3: Textile Sector and Credit Risk   The portion of textile exports in entire exports of the country contracted to 55 percent in the current financial year as compared to 60 percent in the past years. As the total export quantity lingered to be stagnant in the first seven months of the current financial year, the shrinking share of textile goods in exports has been unfavorably affecting the export sector. During July-January 2009-10, total exports came to $10.870 billion. In the months under review, textile export proceeds totaled to $5.981 billion. Pakistans share of the US textile market is dropping. China tops the US market with a share of 36 per cent followed by Bangladesh 21 per cent, India 18 per cent, Morocco 19 per cent and Pakistan 13 per cent. South Korea has lost 20 per cent of the US market. In the European market, China tops again with a share of 29 per cent, Vietnam 28 per cent, India 19 per cent and Pakistan only 1.5 per cent while the Philippines had lost 11 per cent of the market.  [6]   Most importantly for firms and manufacturing sector the reason for this surge in non performing loans has been due to the decline in exports augmented with energy shortfall the country currently faces. Massive shortfall of electricity and gas has rendered major organizations and businesses to reside with expensive ways of production which has increased their costs tremendously. Hence, the gigantic cost borne by the manufacturers has hampered the repayment capability of the firms. Naturally this situation has raised the infected debts with the banks. The textile sector has a substantial contribution in the deterioration of banks overall loan portfolio. In July-March 2009, the infection ratio of the textile sector loans increased to 17.9 per cent from 14.6 per cent in the same period of last year, while the share of textile in total loans to private sector was 19.3 per cent, but it constituted about one-third or 30 per cent of the total non-performing loans (NPLs) of the private sector.  [7] 1.4: Managerial and Academic Concerns Banks main concern is to earn a decent spread or profits. This profitability of the banks is heavily dependent on the degree of concentration in their loan portfolio that is to which sectors they lent heavily and to which they extend few loans. Concentration of loan portfolio is basically a risk management strategy which enables banks to earn a modest return and minimizes the chance of default. For banks it is very important, when talking about the Credit risk, because default risks is the biggest risk the financial institution is exposed to. Hence for a bank it is of extreme importance to be aware of the sectors which are credit worthy and the probability of repayment is high in which sectors, so that they can manage their loan portfolio accordingly and lend to sectors which are not or less prone to default. Furthermore, this study can be carried forward to analyze the differences between with and without diversification done by banks on their credit risk or non performing loan s to be specific. In addition, this study will be useful in investigating the most likely factors which lead to an increase in the default risk of banks. One of the major academic concerns is that the panel cross sectional analysis will act as aid in providing deep insight on banking practices to people inside the banks as well as outside. 1.5: Problem Discussion Credit risk management is one of the most important issues in banking due to the weight it carries in assuring banks survival. Credit risk arises from the potential that an obligor is either unwilling to perform on an obligation or its ability to perform such obligation is impaired resulting in economic loss to the bank  [8]  . In other words, it is the risk that customers will default on their debt obligations and the probability that the credit worthiness of the borrower will decline, which means that the chances of default increases. So, it is very important for banks to monitor the credit risk the portfolio is exposed to since a large default can lead to banks insolvency. To avoid this insolvency banks have to monitor their positions and make sure that the amount lent to anyone customer and/or customers within a single industry and/or a give country is limited. It is generally acknowledged that the amount or percentage of non-performing loans (NPLs) is usually linked wit h bank failures and financial disasters in both developing and developed countries. In reality, there is plentiful substantiation that the financial/banking crises in East Asia and Sub-Saharan African countries were preceded by high non-performing loans. The present worldwide financial crisis, which instigated in the US, was also credited to the speedy non-payment of sub-prime loans/mortgages. In examination of this truth it is for that reason comprehensible why a large amount of stress is placed on non-performing loans when investigating financial vulnerabilities.  [9] So to minimize risk banks either monitor their portfolios or diversify. Banks wish to diversify because the cost of monitoring is greater than the benefit so banks diversify across economic sectors or geographic regions. Diversification increases the average return of the bank, which generally reduces the banks chance of failure. Nevertheless, if banks loans have sufficiently low exposure to sector downturns, a specialized bank has a low probability of failure, so the benefit of diversification is slight. If banks loans have sufficiently high exposure to sector downturns, diversification can actually increase the banks chance of failure: a downturn in one sector is enough to make a diversified bank fail, and a diversified bank is exposed to more sectors than a specialized one. Thus, all else equal, diversifications benefits are greatest when the banks loans have moderate levels of credit risk  [10] Hence, the financial soundness of the Pakistani banks depends upon the sectors performance to which they concentrated in. In this case the textile sector of Pakistans economy is facing a downturn due to reduced demand for textile in the foreign market, thats why the sector is unable to pay back its debt and shifts the burden of risk on the banks. If the banks are financial sound they will absorb such shocks otherwise they will face insolvency. 1.6: Keywords and Definitions The credit policy: To maximize the short run benefits, managers seek to rapidly expand credit activities and may hence take inadequate credit exposures. Particularly, during periods of economic growth, the financial institutions engage in market share conquest campaigns discarding the necessary assessment of credit quality of borrowers. This will lead, through adverse selection reasoning, to an increase of problem loans. As loans growth rate exceeds a certain point, further loans growth adds increase bad loans. Capital adequacy ratio: a tool to control excessive risk taking by banks and to prevent them from being insolvent through recapitalization (Basel accord). Banks with level of capital adequacy ratio (CAR) less than the regulatory minimum are forced to adjust their balance sheet to comply with the regulatory requirement either by raising more capital (holding assets constant) or reducing risk weighted assets (holding capital constant) banks with high levels of CAR might be encouraged to embark in riskier activities leading to riskier credit portfolios Banks Performance: Banks with high profitability are less pressured to revenue creation and thus less constrained to engage in risky credit offerings. Diversification: reduces risk taking as it makes possible the compensation for losses in some product by gains in others. For well diversified banks, where non-interest revenues are important, NPLs should be lower than for less (poorly) diversified financial institutions Size: larger banks have more resources, and are more experimented to better deal with bad borrowers Foreign ownership: a negative effect of foreign ownership on nonperforming loans leading to improve domestic banks credit quality. State Ownership: state-owned banks have more incentives to fund riskier projects and to allocate more favorable credits to small and medium firms. NPLs tend to be higher for banks with state ownership than for other groups Bank-level efficiency: ratio of operating expenses to total assets Bank leverage: (measured by debt to equity ratio) 1.7: Study Objectives The goal of this paper is to examine the sensitivity of non-performing loans to macroeconomic and bank specific factors in Pakistan. In particular, it utilizes regression analysis covering 10 years (2001 to 2009) to scrutinize the association involving non-performing loans and numerous key macroeconomic and bank specific variables. The aim of this research is twofold. First, it seeks to explain differences in NPL levels amongst different commercial banks. Second, it addresses the possible impact of business and institutional environment on the rate of NPL at the bank level. Based on existing literature, we model nonperforming loans disparity between banks as a function of both bank specific and environmental factors. The former serves to capture differences between banks in terms of ownership structure, credit and provisions policies and level of regulatory capital. The latter category allows us to control differences in business and institutional environment between banks to as sess the link between their effectiveness and a well-functioning financial system. This research paper includes a literature view supporting the theoretical framework. Then a proper planned methodology is presented to test empirical evidences and lastly findings are reported and analyses of the findings are done along with the conclusion.

Diagnosis And Treatment Of Breast Cancer - 2197 Words

One out of every eight women in the US is diagnosed with breast cancer every year. When women get older, their chances of developing breast cancer increases. In fact, 80% of all breast cancer patients are women ages fifty and up. As the number of breast cancer patients increases year after year, identification methods and treatments are beginning to advance. Doctors and pathologists are using the highest levels of technology to treat abnormalities inside of the body. The tumor is discovered through either mammography or self-breast examinations. Through these methods, doctors are able to discover the tumor and decide on what treatment is right for each patient. When it comes to treating breast cancer, there are multiple treatment options; the type and severity of the cancer help the doctor decide the optimal treatment plan for each patient. Identification is the first and most critical step in treating breast cancer, detection methods include self-breast examinations and mammography. Self-breast examinations are highly recommended for anyone of any age who has breasts. For this method, every month women check the areas around their breast as well as under their arms for any abnormal lumps (Breast World 4). Those who go about doing these examinations have a greater chance of identifying their cancerous mass sooner because of how frequently they are checking (4). Mammography is another helpful way to identify any lumps or abnormalities. In this process, a large machine usesShow MoreRelatedThe Diagnosis And Treatment Of Breast Cancer1947 Words   |  8 Pages3D Mammography The diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer and other non-cancerous diseases are very important in improving the quality of life for many women. The early diagnosis of the non-cancerous disease can reduce the incidence of breast cancer through effective treatment of mastopathy (fibrocystic of the breasts tissue). In the area of study, a variety of imaging modalities is implemented to assist with the diagnosis. These imaging modalities includes multi-frequency electrical impedanceRead MoreBreast Cancer Research : Diagnosis With Treatment1844 Words   |  8 PagesBreast Cancer Research Including the Diagnosis with Treatment Ellie A. Rider New Castle Career Center Health Science Education Mrs. Talbott December 2, 2014 Author Note Ellie A. Rider, Health Science Education, New Castle Career Programs. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ellie Rider, Health Science Education, New Castle Career Programs, New Castle IN, 47362. Contact: erider2015@gmail Abstract This paper will explain to you an in depth description of an illnessRead MoreHuman Epidermal Growth Factor ( Her2 )1153 Words   |  5 Pagescontrol the growth and spread of certain cancers. Breast cancer is defined as HER2 positive (HER2+) when there is an extremely high level of HER2 receptors present within the cancerous tumour of the breast tissue (Macmillan, 2013). 1.2 Aims and objectives This report aims to give an overview on breast cancer focusing on the HER2+ sub-type of the disease; it includes an overview of aetiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment. It will also include how the advancesRead MoreInformative Breast Cancer Speech Essay899 Words   |  4 PagesInformative Speech: Breast Cancer Attention Getter: What do Sheryl Crow, Judy Blume, Suzanne Somers, Wanda Sykes and my Mother have in common? They are all breast cancer survivors. Topic Disclosure: Today I am going to talk to you about breast cancer information and awareness Preview: During my speech I will discuss: * Symptoms and Diagnosis * Treatment and Side effects * Ways to lower risk and Statistics Audience Link: There is a large amount of men and women who are diagnosedRead MoreOrgan Specific Cancer Treatments. Certain Advanced Cancer1068 Words   |  5 Pagesspecific cancer treatments Certain advanced cancer hospitals manage cancer in an organ specific way, and accordingly oncologists are reserved for treating cancers affecting specific organs only. Accordingly, oncologists have successfully treated breast cancer, head and neck cancer, gynecological cancer, orthopedic cancer, lung cancer, neuro cancer, and liver cancer. Understanding each organ specific cancer and the treatment available for it Breast Cancer It is the commonest of cancers affectingRead MoreBreast Cancer Diagnosis: The Psychosocial and Educational Needs1172 Words   |  5 PagesWhat are the psychosocial and educational needs of a breast cancer patient? In the United States, breast cancer is the most common form of cancer that women are diagnosed with (Stephens, Osowski, Fidale, Spagnoli, 2008). Those diagnosed tend to go through stages of fear, disbelief, shock, and sadness. â€Å"Nurses can improve the quality of care for women with breast cancer and their families by providing additional support services and post-treatment information during the initial education and follow-upRead MoreBreast Cancer Develops From The Breast Tissue1216 Words   |  5 PagesBreast Cancer Breast cancer develops from the breast tissue. It occurs when abnormal cells in the breast divide uncontrollably and form tumours. The tumours are either a lump or a thickening of body tissue. According to cancer research UK, in 2012, there was 50,750 new cases of breast cancer in women and 353 new cases of breast cancer in men, in the UK. There was also 11,716 deaths from breast cancer. (http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/statistics-by-cancer-tRead More Women Coping with Breast Cancer Essay1688 Words   |  7 PagesCoping with Breast Cancer Coping has been closely connected to stress; it involves a process by which a person attempts to restore balance in response to a stressful life event (Henderson, Gore, Davis, and Condon, 2003). The most common cancer among Canadian women in 2010 is breast cancer. An average of 445 Canadian women will be diagnosed with breast cancer and an average of 100 Canadian women will die of breast cancer every week (Canadian Cancer Society, 2010). Coping with breast cancer has beenRead MoreThe Ethical Phenomenon Of Breast Cancer Screening And Treatments867 Words   |  4 Pagesboth the BRCA1 and BRCA 2 gene mutations and choosing bilateral mastectomies for early-stage breast cancers (Weintraub, 2015). Oncologists saw a 50% increase for risk-reduction mastectomy surgery related to the â€Å"Jolie Effect†. The impact of an actress, known for her beauty, to willing risk her body image to increase her lifespan survival has philanthropically advanced the issues surrounding breast cancer. Racial Cultural Williams, Templin, and Hines (2013) identified that some populations groupsRead MoreBreast Cancer Essay830 Words   |  4 Pagesearly breast cancer with 170 women providing complete interview data up to either five years after diagnosis or recurrence. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and risk factors for depression and anxiety in women with early breast cancer in the five years after diagnosis. The study used structured interviews and standardised diagnostic criteria to assess the point prevalence and period prevalence of clinically important depression and anxiety in women with early breast cancer in the

Foreign Direct Investment

Question: Evaluate the Cost and Benefit of Foreign Direct Investment and also Write Political,Economic and Legal System of this Assignment. Answer: Introduction Globalization and foreign direct investment is very critical terms which are in escapable as tools upon which US economy depends upon. In this report a complete study has been prepared over the cost and benefit analysis of foreign direct investment in USA economy. This report has been prepared to divulge how foreign direct investment has been providing benefits for the growth of USA economy. Foreign direct investment is a controversial issue in international economy around the globe. It is evaluated that how foreign direct investment has been playing a pivotal role in economy of USA in collection of foreign exchange. In the starting of this report changes in globalization has been portrayed in context with foreign direct investment in USA economy. Apart from that, Political, legal and economical factors of USA economy have been taken into consideration for evaluating the cost and benefits of foreign direct investment in determined approach. In the end of this report nexus has been es tablished between political, economical and legal factor of foreign direct investment in USA economy (Jayet Marchal, 2016). Political System Foreign direct investment is amount of investment made by foreign investors from the outside of selected country. It is the system which establishes relation between how formal and informal institutions by which government generate policies and rules to demand and assistance of general public. Total democracy has been followed by USA in its political system. Economy of USA is called developed economy and in order to increase its GDP rate Government of USA has opened its economy for the foreign investors (Hanemann, Gao, 2014). However, allowing FDI in USA economy will results into availability of funds for USA countries but it will eventually results into increment of control of outsiders in economy of USA It is further observed that Political stability of USA is also very effective which provides free flow of Foreign investment in USA country. There is several trade agreements, participation in international treaties and other regional blocks have been prepared by USA for encouragin g foreign direct investment. These impacts have divulged USA has made its economy a single global order mostly denominated by democracies and free market for foreign direct investment. Political stability in USA could be reflected with the help of given graph (Wei, Zheng, Liu, Lu, 2014). This graph depicts that USA has been maintaining stable political system. However, co- integration analysis between foreign direct investment and political overview of USA depicts that there exist a positive correlation between two factors. Government of USA has opened up its economy 100% for FDI purpose and allowing foreign investors to make investment in USA economy (Pan, Teng, Supapol, Lu, Huang, Wang, 2014). Therefore, USA has maintained its political stability throughout the time in order to attract foreign investment or more capital. Political system has been playing effective role in attracting FDI in USA. If country faces problem in their political system then it would result into emergence of situation when country would have no investment from foreign investors. Therefore it is evaluated that USA being developed economy has provided that country has been raising prepared their political system open and allowed foreign investors to make investment in determined approach (La mster, (2017). Legal System Legal system is consisted with all the policies, rules and regulation of the country. Foreign direct investment in USA is result of globalization. Economy of USA has reflected that legal system accompanied with laws, regulation and other rules enforceable on globalization has provided that company has allowed foreign investors to invest their money in USA capital market without any restriction. However, there are several sectors in which government of USA has imposed sectorals cap in determined approach. It is further observed that USA economy has widely changed its legal system and reduced its taxation, tariff on several factors. Foreign investors who are investing money in USA economy are aiding with leaving government support and least regulated policies of governments. Investment in intellectual property by foreign investors is encouraged by government parties in USA by abolishing of licensing in several fields, allowing foreign investment in small industries and other niche mark et, new trade policies and dismantling price control. Another major concern which has been seen in USA economy is related with corruption in legal system (Kim, Zychowicz, 2015). In order to attract more FDI and making countries risk free for the foreign investors USA government has prepared agenda to eradicate corruption from their legal system. Legal system of USA has encouraged several investors to make investment in selected sectors. However, there are other parts of economy where FDI by the USA government is not allowed such as hospitals, education and ammunition industry. Government of USA has been making effective efforts to attract more foreign investment by making liberal policies and making changes in their existing policies such as adoption of international policies and entering into regional blocks with countries (Perri Peruffo, 2016). Economic System United state has mixed economy. It is the system which is accompanied with laws and regulation that determine how resources in USA are being distributed for producing goods and service. U.S. economy is made of individual people, business and other factors as per the certain level of requirement of economy. Economical system of USA in context with FDI polices and regulation is open and allows foreign investors to invest their money in USA economy (Li, et al. 2016). However, there is several cost and benefit analysis which have been seen such as allowing FDI from foreign investors results in loss of control in several assets and resources of USA, incoming of notable entrepreneur and establishment of several big multinational companies around the globe. However, it is further observed that GDP of USA is 16.77 trillion USD in which around 15% partition is contributed by FDI and generated gross national income of country results into around 16.99 trillion USD due to wide level of investment of entity from outside of country. The main loss which has been observed is that stocks and goods offered by multinational company provide high competition to domestic business man those results into loss of their business functions (Boly, Coniglio, Prota, Seric, 2015). However, after making cost benefit analysis it would be concluded that FDI in USA results into several benefits such as it increase employment, arrangement of capital and other benefits with les s loss rendering activities. The main benefits of FDI could be reflected that People in USA are provided products and services in their own country as per their demand and need in determined approach (Gopinath, Helpman, Rogoff, (2014). Conclusion In this report it is observed that FDI is very essential for the development of particular economy. It is evaluated that FDI is influenced by mostly three factors of economy namely political, legal and economical factors. In order to identity the true benefits of FDI in country it is required to understand how these systems are influencing FDI. It is easy to say that country getting high FDI would results into development of its economy in short span of time. It could be reflected with the developed countries FDI policies and regulations. However, there are several benefits and losses which are associated with FDI in particular economy so proper due diligence need to be taken care while forming FDI policies by country. In the end it would be concluded that each and every organization should encourage FDI policies for the effectiveness of their international relation with other countries. References: Boly, A., Coniglio, N. D., Prota, F., Seric, A. (2015). Which domestic firms benefit from FDI? Evidence from selected African countries.Development Policy Review,33(5), 615-636. Gopinath, G., Helpman, E., Rogoff, K. (Eds.). (2014).Handbook of international economics(Vol. 4). Elsevier. Hanemann, T., Gao, C. (2014). Chinese FDI in the US: 2013 Recap and 2014 Outlook.Cross Border Investment. https://www. uschina. org/sites/default/files/RHG_XBI_ChineseInvestmentInUS_2013_ Recap_6Jan2014. pdf. New York: Rhodium Group, LLC. January,6. Jayet, H., Marchal, L. (2016). Migration and FDI: Reconciling the standard trade theory with empirical evidence.Economic Modelling,59, 46-66. Kim, W. S., Lyn, E. O., Zychowicz, E. J. (2015). Is the source of FDI important to emerging market economies? Evidence from Japanese and US FDI. Lamster, I. B. (2017). Implications of the 2016 FDI Policy Statements.International Dental Journal,67(1), 3-3. Li, L., Wang, H., Jin, H., Cao, Z., Feng, N., Zhao, Y., ... Yan, F. (2016). Interferon-inducible GTPase: a novel viral response protein involved in rabies virus infection.Archives of virology,161(5), 1285-1293. Pan, Y., Teng, L., Supapol, A. B., Lu, X., Huang, D., Wang, Z. (2014). Firms FDI ownership: The influence of government ownership and legislative connections.Journal of International Business Studies,45(8), 1029-1043. Perri, A., Peruffo, E. (2016). Knowledge spillovers from FDI: a critical review from the international business perspective.International Journal of Management Reviews,18(1), 3-27. Wei, Y., Zheng, N., Liu, X., Lu, J. (2014). Expanding to outward foreign direct investment or not? A multi-dimensional analysis of entry mode transformation of Chinese private exporting firms.International Business Review,23(2), 356-370.